PLEASE FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS AS INDICATED BELOW: 1). ZERO (0) PLAGIARISM 2). AT LEAST 5 REFERENCES, NO MORE THAN 5 YEARS (WITHIN 5YRS, OR LESS THAN 5YRS) 3). PLEASE FOLLOW THE APA 7 STYLE AND FORMAT 4). PLEASE SEE THE ATTACHED RUBRIC DETAILS AND THE CASE STUDY DECISION TREE. Not only do children and adults have different presentations for ADHD, but males and females may also have vastly different clinical presentations. Different people may also respond to medication therapies differently. For example, some ADHD medications may cause children to experience stomach pain, while others can be highly addictive for adults. In your role, as a psychiatric nurse practitioner, you must perform careful assessments and weigh the risks and benefits of medication therapies for patients across the life span. For this Assignment, you consider how you might assess and treat patients presenting with ADHD. Examine You will be asked to make three decisions concerning the medication to prescribe to this patient. Be sure to consider factors that might impact the patient’s pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic processes. At each decision point, you should evaluate all options before selecting your decision and moving throughout the exercise. Before you make your decision, make sure that you have researched each option and that you evaluate the decision that you will select. Be sure to research each option using the primary literature.

Introduction
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that often manifest in childhood and continue into adolescence and adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The presentation of ADHD can vary between children and adults, as well as between males and females. Additionally, individuals may respond differently to medication therapies for ADHD, necessitating careful assessment and consideration of the risks and benefits of these treatments across the lifespan.

Assessment of ADHD
The assessment of ADHD involves a comprehensive evaluation of the patient, including a thorough medical and psychiatric history, physical examination, and the use of standardized diagnostic criteria. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5), provides the diagnostic criteria for ADHD and can guide the clinician in making an accurate diagnosis (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

In children, the presentation of ADHD typically includes symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. However, these symptoms may manifest differently in adults, with a greater emphasis on inattentive symptoms rather than hyperactivity (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Furthermore, there may be gender differences in the clinical presentation of ADHD, with girls tending to exhibit more internalizing symptoms, such as inattention and anxiety, while boys are more likely to display externalizing symptoms, such as hyperactivity and aggression (Gaub & Carlson, 1997).

In addition to the clinical interview and observation, the assessment of ADHD may also include the use of rating scales, such as the ADHD Rating Scale and the Conners’ Rating Scales, which can provide further information about the severity and impact of symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). These rating scales can be completed by parents, teachers, and the individual themselves to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the symptomatology and impairment associated with ADHD.

Treatment of ADHD
The treatment of ADHD typically involves a multimodal approach that includes both pharmacological and psychosocial interventions. Medication therapy is often the first-line treatment for ADHD, particularly for moderate to severe cases (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Several classes of medications have been approved for the treatment of ADHD, including stimulant and non-stimulant medications.

Stimulant medications, such as methylphenidate and amphetamines, are the most commonly prescribed pharmacological treatments for ADHD (Faraone & Glatt, 2010). These medications work by increasing the availability of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain, thereby improving attention and reducing hyperactivity and impulsivity (Arnold et al., 2015). Stimulant medications have been found to be highly effective in reducing ADHD symptoms in both children and adults (Faraone & Glatt, 2010). However, they may also be associated with certain side effects, such as appetite suppression, weight loss, and sleep disturbances (Arnold et al., 2015).

Non-stimulant medications, such as atomoxetine and guanfacine, are alternative options for individuals who do not respond well to or cannot tolerate stimulant medications (Arnold et al., 2015). These medications work by targeting different neurotransmitter systems implicated in the pathophysiology of ADHD, such as norepinephrine and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors (Arnold et al., 2015). Non-stimulant medications have been found to be effective in reducing ADHD symptoms, although they may be less potent than stimulant medications (Faraone & Glatt, 2010).

Conclusion
Assessing and treating patients with ADHD requires careful consideration of the unique presentations and individual differences in medication response. Clinicians should conduct a comprehensive assessment that includes a detailed clinical interview, standardized rating scales, and consideration of gender differences in symptom presentation. Pharmacological treatment of ADHD typically involves the use of stimulant or non-stimulant medications, with individualized considerations for the risks and benefits of each option. Future research should continue to explore the factors that contribute to the heterogeneity in ADHD and refine treatment approaches to optimize outcomes for patients across the lifespan.